The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, alongside the sympathetic nervous system. While the sympathetic system is associated with the “fight or flight” response, the parasympathetic system is known for its role in promoting a “rest and digest” state. Let’s explore the anatomy and physiology of the parasympathetic nervous system in detail:

Anatomy

1. Cranial and Sacral Outflow:

• Parasympathetic outflow primarily originates from the cranial nerves (cranial outflow) and the sacral spinal cord (sacral outflow).
• Cranial outflow involves the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X), which plays a significant role in parasympathetic innervation.

1. Cranial Nerves Involved:

• Cranial nerves involved in parasympathetic outflow include the oculomotor nerve (III), facial nerve (VII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), and the vagus nerve (X).

1. Ganglia Locations:

• Parasympathetic ganglia are located close to or within target organs.
• Cranial nerves have ganglia near the target organs, allowing for shorter postganglionic fibers.

1. Vagus Nerve (CN X):

• The vagus nerve is a major contributor to parasympathetic innervation.
• It extends from the brainstem to various organs, influencing the heart, lungs, digestive organs, and more.

1. Pelvic Splanchnic Nerves:

• Sacral outflow involves pelvic splanchnic nerves arising from the S2 to S4 spinal levels, contributing to parasympathetic innervation of pelvic organs.

Physiology

1. Preganglionic Neuron Activation:

• Preganglionic neurons release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) when activated.
• These neurons synapse with postganglionic neurons in or near target organs.

1. Postganglionic Neuron Activation:

• Postganglionic neurons also release ACh, which binds to muscarinic receptors on target cells.
• Unlike the sympathetic system, the neurotransmitter at both pre- and postganglionic synapses is ACh.

1. Effect on Heart Rate:

• Parasympathetic activation slows down the heart rate (bradycardia) through the release of ACh at the sinoatrial (SA) node.

1. Bronchoconstriction:

• Constriction of the bronchioles in the respiratory system occurs, reducing airflow.

1. Stimulation of Digestive Processes:

• Parasympathetic activation enhances digestive functions by promoting salivation, increasing gastrointestinal motility, and stimulating digestive gland secretion.

1. Pupillary Constriction (Miosis):

• The parasympathetic system induces constriction of the pupils, aiding in near vision and reducing the amount of light entering the eyes.

1. Contraction of Bladder and Bowels:

• Parasympathetic activity stimulates the contraction of the bladder for urination and enhances bowel movements.

1. Promotion of Sexual Arousal:

• Parasympathetic stimulation contributes to sexual arousal and function.

1. Energy Conservation:

• The parasympathetic system promotes energy conservation and restoration, contributing to a state of rest and recovery.

Understanding the parasympathetic nervous system’s anatomy and physiology is crucial for comprehending how it counterbalances the effects of the sympathetic system, maintaining homeostasis and adjusting bodily functions in response to different internal and external conditions. The delicate interplay between these two systems ensures the body’s adaptability and overall well-being.