Atherosclerosis is a progressive inflammatory disease of the large and medium-sized arteries characterized by the accumulation of lipids, inflammatory cells, and fibrous elements, leading to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. The development of atherosclerosis is a complex process that involves multiple steps: endothelial dysfunction, lipid deposition, inflammatory response, smooth muscle cell proliferation, and plaque progression […]
Inflammation is regulated by a complex network of chemical mediators that orchestrate the response to injury or infection. These mediators originate from various cells and tissues and include vasoactive amines, lipid mediators, cytokines, chemokines, and other small molecules. They play roles in vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, leukocyte recruitment, and other aspects of the inflammatory response. […]
The inflammatory response involves a series of complex and coordinated steps aimed at eliminating the injurious agent and initiating tissue repair. The key mechanisms include alterations in vascular permeability and blood flow, as well as the migration of white blood cells (WBCs) to the site of injury. 1. Alteration in Vascular Permeability and Blood Flow […]
Inflammation is a complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a protective response involving immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators. The primary purpose of inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, clear out necrotic cells and tissues damaged from the […]
Electrolytes are essential chemicals that, when dissolved in water, separate into positively and negatively charged ions. These ions play a crucial role in the body’s nerve reactions and muscle functions, facilitating proper exchange both inside and outside cells. Examples of electrolytes include calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. Imbalances in electrolytes can lead to a variety […]
Calcification is the process wherein calcium accumulates in body tissues, blood vessels, or organs, potentially leading to hardening and disruption of normal bodily functions. Since calcium is transported throughout the bloodstream and is found in every cell, calcification can manifest in various parts of the body. Approximately 99% of the body’s calcium resides in teeth […]
Under certain conditions, cells may accumulate abnormal amounts of various substances. These accumulations can be harmless or associated with varying degrees of injury. The substances can be located in the cytoplasm, within organelles (typically lysosomes), or in the nucleus. They may be synthesized by the affected cells or originate from elsewhere in the body. There […]
Cellular swelling, also known as hydropic change or cytotoxic edema, is a condition where cells increase in volume due to an influx of water. This phenomenon typically occurs as a response to various forms of cellular injury, leading to an imbalance in the regulation of ions and water within the cell. Here’s an in-depth look […]
Morphology of Cell injury Cell adaptation within limits Most cells have the ability to adapt to changes in their environment by altering their morphology, pattern of growth and metabolic activity. These adaptive responses may be part of the normal physiology of a cell or tissue, or they may represent an attempt to limit the harmful […]
Prolonged deprivation of oxygenated blood supply leads to irreversible cellular damage and dysfunction. The process of reversible cell injury can progress to irreversible cell injury, resulting in cell death. This irreversible state is marked by the cell’s inability to reverse mitochondrial and plasma membrane dysfunction even upon reperfusion or reoxygenation. Additional factors contributing to irreversible […]
