Tolerance and dependence are fundamental pharmacological concepts that describe the body’s adaptive response to the repeated or prolonged use of certain drugs. These phenomena are especially critical in the context of psychoactive substances, such as opioids, benzodiazepines, stimulants, and alcohol. They significantly influence drug efficacy, patient safety, and the potential for substance abuse and addiction. … Read more
IntroductionDrug abuse, medically referred to as substance abuse, signifies the deliberate, recurrent, and harmful consumption of psychoactive substances—including both legal and illegal drugs—which adversely affects an individual’s physical health, mental stability, emotional well-being, and social life. It is a growing global health concern that not only impacts individuals but also reverberates through families, communities, and … Read more
Drug addiction, clinically referred to as Substance Use Disorder (SUD), is a chronic, progressive, and relapsing brain disease that manifests as an uncontrollable compulsion to seek and use drugs, despite the detrimental consequences it brings to physical, psychological, social, and occupational well-being. It is recognized not only as a complex disorder of the brain’s reward … Read more
Opioid antagonists are pharmacological agents that counteract the physiological and psychoactive effects of opioids by competitively binding to opioid receptors in the central nervous system (CNS) without activating them. By occupying these receptors, they effectively block or reverse the action of opioid agonists such as morphine, heroin, fentanyl, and various prescription pain medications. These agents … Read more
Opioid analgesics constitute a potent class of pharmacological agents primarily employed in the management of moderate to severe pain. Their therapeutic efficacy stems from their high affinity for opioid receptors distributed throughout the central nervous system (CNS) and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Upon binding, these drugs modulate the perception and response to pain, often providing … Read more
Nootropics, frequently referred to as “smart drugs” or cognitive enhancers, constitute a diverse category of substances that are reputed to improve various aspects of mental functioning. These substances are primarily used to enhance executive functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, and planning, as well as to improve memory, learning ability, motivation, creativity, and even mood in … Read more
Central Nervous System Stimulants Central Nervous System (CNS) Stimulants comprise a diverse and pharmacologically significant class of psychoactive substances that exert excitatory effects on the brain and spinal cord. These agents function primarily by enhancing the synaptic activity of various excitatory neurotransmitters—most notably dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin—resulting in a heightened state of mental alertness, elevated … Read more
Drugs Used in Alzheimer’s Disease: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic, progressive neurodegenerative condition that primarily impairs memory, cognitive function, and the ability to perform daily activities. As the most common cause of dementia among older adults, Alzheimer’s accounts for approximately 60% to 80% of all dementia cases globally. First described by Alois Alzheimer in … Read more
Parkinson`s disease, or paralysis agitans, is characterized by a resting tremor (involuntary trembling when a limb is in rest), rigidity (inability to initiate movements), and bradykinesia (slowness of movements). The disease results from the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons that arise in the substantial nigra and project to other structures in the basal ganglia. (Or) Parkinson’s … Read more
Hallucinogens, also known as psychedelics, are a class of drugs that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes, often leading to profound changes in consciousness and sensory experiences. These substances can induce hallucinations, distortions of time and space, and altered states of consciousness. Hallucinogens are typically divided into two categories: classic hallucinogens, such as LSD (Lysergic … Read more
